SM 206

Theories of Motivation

Below are a number of theories of human motivation from the discourses of medicine, psychology and anthropology.  They are not mutually exclusive.

Sigmund Freud 1856 – 1939. Pleasure Principle.

In the early 1900’s Freud developed his concept of the ‘Pleasure Principle’, a generalised theory of humanity where he states that the main conclusion to be drawn from observing human behaviour is that people want to make themselves happy.  He defined The Pleasure Principle as the drive to seek pleasure and avoid pain, and the ways in which we do this he called positive and negative.  The positive mode seeks pleasurable experience directly, whereas the negative mode consists of three palliative measures which we use to avoid "the pain of disappointments and insoluble problems". These Freud describes as 'distractions', 'substitutive satisfactions' and 'intoxicants'. [i]  His parallel theory of the ‘Reality Principle’ explains our pragmatic ability to persevere with unfulfilling tasks for the sake of future happiness – so preventing our lives from disintegrating into the chaos that would result from widespread instant gratification.

Homeostasis.

A more obviously physiological concept is that of ‘Homeostasis’, a term originating with the physiologist Walter Cannon in the 1920’s, from the Greek meaning ‘to stay the same’. Homeostasis is the ability of all living organisms to regulate their internal conditions, to maintain a balanced state that permits the body to thrive.  [ii]  There are two modes through which this occurs in humans, referred to as ‘regulatory motivators’, and ‘purposive motivators’.  Purposive motivators consist of intentional decisions to act, with their theoretical foundations in philosophy, psychology and the behavioural sciences.  Regulatory motivators may be involuntary such as shivering, or voluntary, as in taking a rest when feeling tired.

Freud’s Pleasure Principle could be considered under this category since it concerns ‘drives’.  The body responds to influences from both inside and out, and makes changes to maintain stability, such as resting due to tiredness.  This is a physiological response, but the theory equally includes the psychological, since humans also get agitated, upset, or unhappy under certain conditions, both physiological and environmental.  This is where Freud's theories of neurosis, where art is used as a defence or sublimation, meet homeostasis.  The body/ mind seeks to maintain itself in times of emotional or existential distress, as it does with physical distress, and some sort of regulatory activity must take place.  Psychological homeostasis can be observed where occupation meets physiology.  The occupation may be a practical activity that solves a real problem, or an unconnected activity such as leisure, entertainment, or creative activities that restore a sense of balance. The arts are often perceived as beneficial to psychological health, but often only in terms of ‘self-expression’.  Yet art or other activities may fulfil homeostatic needs in other ways; for example through enabling reciprocal social contact, the freedom of playful exploration, or the pleasure of creativity for itself.

Abraham Maslow 1908 – 1970. Hierarchy of Needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs was developed in the 1960’s, and successfully accounts for the varied and changeable motivation of human beings, both between different people, and in one person at different times.  Maslow defines all human needs under the two classifications of ‘Deficiency’ needs and ‘Being’ needs.  He positions the basic Deficiency needs such as food and shelter at the bottom of the hierarchy, and the Being needs of aesthetics and self-actualisation at the top, and he postulates that our motivation rises through this hierarchy as each need is met in turn, from the bottom-up.  We are therefore only motivated to seek our Being needs once our physiological Deficiency needs have been met. Thus he accounts for our constantly changing levels of motivation for various activities, as well as for all human motivation from the most basic physiological to the most cultural.  However there is a difference in how our Being and Deficiency needs are met.  Satisfaction of Deficiency needs leads to physical homeostasis and progression of motivations up the hierarchy.  Being needs however become their own reward, and are repeated more often once they are successfully achieved. [iii]

Maslow's hierarchy of needs diagram. [iv]       

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Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi 1934 -. Flow.

The concept of activities becoming their own reward has also been thoroughly examined by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who developed the concept of ‘Flow’ during the 1970s, when it appeared to him that theories of motivation based on models of deficit failed to account for the fact that humans relinquish basic needs when engaged in absorbing activities.  ‘Flow’ may be defined briefly as an optimal experience during intrinsically motivated activities in which the person becomes fully immersed, and which is associated with high levels of motivation and feelings of great freedom, enjoyment, fulfilment and skill. [v]   From his research Csikszentmihalyi concluded that our most enjoyable experiences involve the process of discovery and novelty, and that these experiences stimulate the pleasure centres of the brain. [vi] He designated nine factors as important elements of flow, which can be summarised as: feelings of certainty and confidence in what one is doing; concentration on the present moment of an activity with loss of awareness of passing time, external concerns and self-consciousness; the experience of ‘discovery and challenge’ as stimulating but without anxiety or fear, and the activity as ‘autotelic.’[vii] Any activity has the potential to become autotelic since flow is an attitude rather than an activity.  Flow is not the equivalent of happiness which is superfluous during the flow experience, although flow activities do contribute to overall life happiness and a stronger self concept.  Flow does share many features with play, but with the important addition of adult ‘goal directed’ behaviour.

Biologically Determined Creativity.

Humanity’s need for occupation is discussed in evolutionary terms by Theresa Schmid in Promoting Health through Creativity .[viii]  She cites numerous authors involved in anthropological research who support the idea that human behaviour shifted during the upper Palaeolithic period (40 to 50,000 years ago) due to a major permanent change in the biological architecture of the brain.  This change resulted from the performance of creative human occupations which were necessary for health and survival at the time.  Schmid cites  scientific evidence of biological and neurological ‘permanent pathways’ in the brain for the expression of creativity, and describes how creativity has become a normal part of everyday human behaviour, with which we negotiate life’s processes and imaginatively plan for future events that currently exist only in thought.  Although some people are estranged from their own creativity and avoid using it, others are extremely effective at using their creative skills. [ix]  Small acts of creativity are performed continuously during normal daily routines.